Pre-Columbian Americas

Sample Lesson - Introduction

Lesson 1.06: The Fall of the Aztec World

No one get near our masterpiece this time.
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When we were kids, we at Shmoop had an epic beach day with the fam. We spent hours building an elaborate sand castle, complete with a moat…only for our younger sibling to wreck it with one well-placed kick.

The moral of the story? Nothing lasts forever, not sand castles and not powerful Mesoamerican empires.

In 1519, a Spanish expedition toppled the century-long Aztec civilization. Part of it was Moctezuma II's weak leadership, and part of it was Spain's superior military power. However, we'd lay most of the blame on all the Old World diseases that the Spanish brought over from Europe.

Smallpox and influenza killed far more Aztec people than bullets ever did. If you're wondering how the sniffles wiped out millions, it's because Mesoamerican people didn't have any immunity to those sicknesses. They were also highly contagious diseases that could tear through a community.

Yikes.

We don't know about you, but all this depressing history is making us crave another beach day. Although, of course, we won't bring along the younger bro this time.

Sample Lesson - Reading

Reading 1.1.06a: From Moctezuma I to Moctezuma II

Moctezuma I (also spelled as Montezuma I) was the second Aztec emperor and fifth king (1440 - 1469) of the Tenochtitlan city-state. Under his reign, Aztec influence expanded beyond the Valley of Mexico—the area surrounding Lake Texcoco. Tenochtitlan became the leading power among the many Aztec city-states and tributaries.

Moctezuma I's big idea was to form an alliance with two neighboring cities, Texcoco and Tlacopan. They agreed to divide any conquered territory between them, and this became known as the Aztec Triple Alliance. Theoretically, this alliance ruled the Aztec empire…but Tenochtitlan wound up calling the shots.

The alliance expanded Aztec territory from a safe, little nucleus into a true empire, gobbling up other cities and neighboring groups. The Aztec Triple Alliance used a tribute system. Conquered cities and peoples, like the Mixtec, were folded into the Aztec empire. However, they were usually left alone as long as they paid tribute to the Alliance.

A tribute can be money, but it could also be gold, quetzal feathers, red dye made from cactus beetles, or—everyone's favorite—cacao. In return for all the chocolate they could eat, the Alliance offered protection and resources to their subject territories.

Moctezuma I didn't just expand the empire; he was also a patron to his home city of Tenochtitlan. He was the main driving force behind Tenochtitlan's development as a major city. The aqueducts were his project, and he also built a system of dams and floodwalls to avoid a repeat of the serious floods that damaged Tenochtitlan early in his reign. He had much of the city, which was originally made from wood, rebuilt in stone. This made the city more resistant to fire, flood, and invaders, not to mention more enduring for archaeological study hundreds of years later.

Moctezuma I's leadership made the Aztecs into one of the great empires of history. His attention to different aspects of government led to his successes:

• He kept Tenochtitlan safe by making his close neighbors into allies.
• He incorporated territories that had something to add to the empire.
• He governed them loosely, so they were less likely to revolt.
• He collected tributes to keep the empire operating smoothly.
• He showed concern for the practical needs of people through his public works in Tenochtitlan.

A+ work, Moctezuma.

Cortés Takes Tenochtitlan

In 1519, the Aztec empire was at the height of its power, full of engineering marvels, kept safe by political and military might, and richer than a butter sandwich. By 1521, it was conquered, depopulated, and subjugated.

Since Christopher Columbus "discovered" "America" in 1492—he was trying to get to Asia and stumbled on the Caribbean—Spain and other powers had been nibbling at the edges of the New World. In 1519, Spanish explorer Hernán Cortés decided to lead a group of soldiers from Yucatán further inland.

Cortés had two big pieces of good luck. Early on, Cortés' group met a young slave woman named Malinche, who spoke the Aztec language of Nahuatl and at least one Maya language. A multilingual maven, she picked up Spanish quickly and soon acted as a translator. She stuck close to the Spanish and eventually became Cortés' mistress.

Malinche is a controversial figure today. Some people consider her a traitor to her people (who kept her as a slave, so how loyal can she be expected to be?), and others consider her the mother of mestizo people—or people of mixed European and indigenous ancestry.

As Cortés and Malinche trekked inland, they passed through Tlaxcala. This city and other territories resented Tenochtitlan's dominance. The people of Tlaxcala made an alliance with Cortés and pointed him toward the capital, which was Cortés' second piece of luck.

At this time, Tenochtitlan and the Alliance were ruled by Moctezuma II (1502 - 1520). He presided over the first contact between Europeans and Mesoamerican civilizations, and unfortunately, he made a fatal mistake.

You see, an ancient Aztec prophecy warned that the feathered serpent god Quetzalcoatl would return to earth one day. Moctezuma II heard of the strange men marching through their territory, wearing strange clothing and speaking an unfamiliar tongue. He assumed that Cortés was in fact Quetzalcoatl.

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Like anyone would do if faced with the possible arrival of a man-eating snake god, Moctezuma II sent the Spanish some gold and silver. He asked them not to approach the capital. This tactic failed—the last thing a conquistador (the Spanish word for "conquerer") wants to hear is "no." Plus, Moctezuma II's offering showed Cortés that the Aztec had riches worth taking.

When Cortés and his 500 soldiers arrived in Tenochtitlan, they were initially greeted politely. However, they eventually took Moctezuma II hostage and ransacked parts of the city. Enraged, the citizens expelled the Spanish and their Tlaxcalan allies in a bloody battle called La Noche Triste (the Sad Night).

Furious that the Aztec had kicked him out from their home, Cortés got more recruits and came back to attack the city. After four months of the siege, Tenochtitlan, the greatest city of Mesoamerica, fell.

Sample Lesson - Reading

Reading 1.1.06b: Smallpox, Measles, and the Flu

From 1519 to 1521, the Spanish quickly conquered the rest of the Aztec empire. Part of their swift victory was due to the new diseases they introduced to the New World.

When the Spanish invaded, they didn't come alone. They brought animals from Europe; indigenous people reported men with white skin riding on "deer," because that was the closest animal to a horse a Mesoamerican had ever seen. The Spanish and their animals also brought smaller passengers: the germs that cause diseases like smallpox, measles, and influenza.

Mesoamerican peoples had never been exposed to any of these diseases before, which meant they had no natural immunity. Quick biology lesson: when a disease is present in a population for a while, people eventually develop antibodies against it. Most people are descended from at least one person who survived the disease, so they inherit some resistance. Some people will still die of it, but not everyone. However, since these diseases had developed in Europe and had never existed in the Americas before, no Mesoamerican peoples had any resistance.

As a result, disease did a lot of the dirty work for the Spanish. The Spanish had better weapons, like steel swords and guns, but their numbers were still tiny compared to the population of the Aztec empire. Smallpox and measles tore through the native population, killing huge numbers of people all at once.

Both these diseases are also incredibly contagious, so if one person contracted it, the entire community would also get it. When Cortés arrived, there were about 25 million people living in present-day Mexico. By 1520, an estimated five to eight million had died from the smallpox epidemic.

As if it couldn't get any worse, this was only the beginning. Waves of diseases battered the surviving Aztecs and other indigenous peoples throughout the 16th century. There were also two outbreaks of "cocolitzli," an unidentified, Ebola-like illness that killed as many as 17 million in outbreaks in 1545 and 1576.

These epidemics explain why the Spanish were able to conquer such a huge amount of territory in so little time. This deadly process would repeat itself across throughout North and South America and, later, Australia, clearing the way for Europeans settlers.

Sample Lesson - Activity

Activity 1.06: Choosing a Side

Imagine you're the adviser to the ruler of a small city-state under Aztec domination in 1519. Your city is allowed to govern its own territory and is kept safe from other outsiders by the Alliance. However, you have to pay tribute and avoid doing anything that might get you in trouble with the capital.

You've heard that strange, white men with weapons have arrived, and that some other cities tired of Tenochtitlan's rule have offered to help them. You've also heard that shortly after they arrived, a new and serious disease began appearing.

You must advise your king what to do. Do you remain loyal to the reliable and familiar framework of the empire, or do you try for a better deal with the new men?

Step One

On the discussion board, write a post of 100 – 200 words discussing which side you think your city should take. Include at least three factors to support your decision.

Remember, you're writing as an Aztec person in 1519. Use what you've learned throughout the readings, but don't forget to consider it from their perspective. We also encourage you to use narrative writing and historical detail to make your appeal come to life, and don't forget to use the first person (I)—you are the Aztec strategist.

Here's an example to get you started:

I believe the time has come for us to shake off the Aztec Triple Alliance. For many years, we have lived under the heel of Moctezuma II. In order to reclaim our independence, I propose we ally ourselves with the white strangers.

Step Two

Now, take of the role of king of a city-state. Read through your classmates' posts on the discussion board, then reply to one of your classmates explaining whether you'll take their advice or not. Make sure to use friendly, civil language to explain whether you agree or disagree with them.